Seeing that the currencies mentioned by a book friend were a little confusing, I specially compiled a table of exchange rates of various countries at that time for everyone to read.

1. At that time, Portugal had two currencies, the old Cruzado in the early days and the Spanish peso in the later days.

1 Cruzado≈42-48 taels of silver (after Wanli) = 50 pesos

2. The Spanish currency unit is the rial. At that time, the coins minted were available in denominations of 1 riyal and denominations of 2, 4 and 8 riyals. One of the most widely circulated is the 8-riyal coin, commonly known as the "Silver Cross Coin", known as the Peso. 1 peso = 8 riyals ≈ 0.9 taels of silver.

3. Pound sterling. The unit of the pound sterling is only used as a tax unit, and ordinary people do not use coins of such a large denomination in their daily life, so they were not minted in the early stage. At that time, shillings and pennies were the main common use in England. £1 = 20 shillings = 240 pence = 5 pesos ≈ 4.5 taels of silver.

4. Francs (i.e. Livre, Tourlive). Like the British pound, the franc was not used or minted much, and the main unit of currency actually used in France at that time was called the "livre", which had a face value equal to about 1 franc. The gold coins of the Great Aiju and the Lesser Aiju appear in the book, with the Great Aiju having a face value of 6 francs and 12 sous, and the small Aiju having a face value of 3 francs and 6 su.

The value of 1 franc is slightly more than 1 pound, which is about 1 franc = about 1.2-1.25 pounds≈ about 5.5 taels of silver.

5. Ducat. Originally minted in Venice and passed through Europe, the Dutch began to cast their own. At that time, the Dutch own currency was the gold ducat, and the silver escarpin, of which 1 ducat = 20 escarpins≈ 2.1-2.2 pesos≈ 2 taels of silver.

6. As for the other German, Nordic, Russian, Polish, Italian states, and Ottoman Turkey, their currencies are even more varied, and I will not list them all. In fact, the currency values of European countries were already very chaotic, which had a great impact on commercial trade. And the exchange rate was constantly changing, especially if a country was financially strained due to war or other factors, then a large number of coins of insufficient fineness would be minted, causing the value of the local currency to fall, which was really frequent at that time. In some countries with bad credit, such as Spain, the exchange rate is even more like a roller coaster. I remember a rumor that the Spanish currency minted in the Americas was not in good condition (which proved to be not a rumor years later), and the Spanish peso fell sharply in the Dutch market the next day.

7. Finally, let's talk about the comparison of gold, silver and copper in Europe at that time. In the early 17th century, the ratio of gold and silver was about 1:15, and the ratio of silver and copper was about 1:13 (in the forties and fifties, because of the large amount of copper mining in Sweden and other places, the price of copper depreciated several times continuously, and during the Anglo-Dutch War, the price of silver and copper even reached 1:80 and 1:90 because of the large amount of copper imported into Japan from the Netherlands). At that time, due to the development of the New World, especially the discovery of large silver mines in Mexico and Peru, a large amount of silver from the Americas flowed into Europe, so the price of silver in Europe at that time was in a state of slow decline, and the gold-silver ratio even exceeded 1:20 at the most extreme. At that time in China, the ratio of gold and silver was always within 10, and many times it was 1:8. This was where the Dutch at that time had room to take advantage of different price arbitrages between Japan and China.

8. Huaxia Yuan. The legal tender of the East Coast Republic of China: 1 "yuan" = 10 riyals = 1.25 pesos≈ 1.1 taels of silver in circulation = 0.25 pounds sterling = 0.2 francs≈ 0.4-0.5 ducats. (27 grams of silver + 3 grams of copper)