Looking at Professor Hu Shi who was talking eloquently on the podium, Liu Desheng, who was sitting in the auditorium, was full of reverence.

The above is the organization and style of the A-style political party. As for the B-type party, it's a different story. The surname of the B-type political party can also be divided into several points:

(1) A type B political party is a tight-knit organization with a definite number of people and detailed party membership. Party members must be carefully investigated and examined when joining the party. After joining the party, party members can be punished and expelled, but they cannot leave the party freely.

(2) Party members of Type B political parties must obey Party discipline. Party members have no freedoms and no secrets. Type B political parties must have strict spy organs, whose role is not only to detect and guard against people outside the party, but also to monitor the speech, thoughts, and actions of party members. Party members must obey the Party's orders and follow the Party's line in their thoughts and speech.

(3) The purpose of a type B political party is a one-party dictatorship. When they did not take power, they did not hesitate to use any means to gain power; After the vested regime, they did not hesitate to use any means to consolidate and dominate the regime. Type B political parties themselves are a minority party, but because they are tightly organized, they can often use their special political authority to subdue the majority of the people and rule the whole country with a minority party.

(4) Type B political parties absolutely do not recognize and do not tolerate the existence of opposition parties. All opposition forces are reactionary and must be thoroughly eradicated before the power of the one-party permanent dictatorship can be consolidated. ”

The above list of the surnames of the two types of political parties is very simple political common sense, and it is not worthy of the laughter of political scientists. However, precisely because these distinctions are so shallow, they are often overlooked by ordinary people, and even by brilliant scholars. For example, some time ago, when discussing the difference between the two worlds of consciousness of the United States and Soviet Russia, he said: 'The United States gives the people an electoral vote, and Soviet Russia gives the people a piece of bread. This does not seem to be a fair comparative theory. The people of the United States have not been without bread, and the people of Soviet Russia have not been without an electoral ballot, but the fundamental difference between the two worlds lies in the fundamental difference in the way in which the two ballots are used. Since there were no opposition parties in Soviet Russia, the results of the elections were generally considered to be 100 percent or 99 percent. Because the United States allows opposition parties to compete freely, the biggest election victory is always only 50 or 60 percent of the total number of votes cast by the people. These 50 or 60 percent victories represent the politics of freedom, the thoughts and actions of reading, and the grace of tolerating different parties. The so-called division of the 'two worlds' is in this division between freedom and unfreedom, reading and non-reading, tolerance and intolerance. ”

"Since the end of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese political parties have sprung up, including Type A parties and Type B parties, such as Sun's Chinese Revolutionary Party and more recently, the China Cloth Party. China has always had the soil for the breeding of power politics, so it is very easy to create a one-party dictatorship, but fortunately, neither the revolutionary party nor the party has gained power, so that China will not fall into the cycle of the old history. ”

"In recent years, the political axe has been preparing to implement constitutional government, and this change can be said to meet the needs of the current situation, and it can also be said to be the inevitable trend of the country's progress and development. There are many political parties participating in the National Assembly, and this is actually a matter of hope in China's modern political history. So it seems that anyone inside or outside the party should think carefully about the significance of this shift. In my personal opinion, this change should be from B-style party politics to A-style party politics, which seems to include a fundamental reform of the party's content and style, and not just a few political parties allocating various electoral seats or assigning official positions at the central and local levels. If the implementation of the constitutionalism can lead to a new political style that loves freedom, advocates the idea of reading power, and tolerates dissent, then it can be regarded as the beginning of China's great political reform. ”

After Hu Shi finished the lecture, the students started a free discussion, during which from time to time some students raised their hands to ask Hu Shi questions, Hu Shi gave answers one by one, Liu Desheng also stepped forward to ask Hu Shi a few questions, although Hu Shi felt a little difficult to understand his thick Hunan accent, but still patiently answered him.

Time flies in class, and a class ends quickly, Liu Desheng looked at the class schedule, and ran quickly to another classroom with a few Hunan classmates.

When Liu Desheng came to the classroom, the seats in the front row of the classroom were already full of students, and Liu Desheng and several classmates came to the back seats and sat down, waiting for class.

With the arrival of the students, the class was soon full. Liu Desheng just opened the notebook, and with a slight fragrant breeze, a pretty figure appeared in front of Liu Desheng.

Liu Desheng glanced up inadvertently, and his body couldn't help but freeze there all of a sudden.

It was a girl in a white dress and a blue dress with short ear-length hair, standing there, holding a few books to her chest, blinking at him with big beautiful eyes and smiling.

It was as if a round of morning was rising in front of Liu Desheng's eyes, and Liu Desheng only felt as if he was bathed in warm sunshine, and time seemed to stop at this moment.

"This classmate, is there anyone here?" The girl's sweet and pleasant voice sounded, like a natural sound, which made Liu Desheng deeply intoxicated again, and he couldn't say a word.

"Can I sit here if there's no one here?" The girl asked again, Liu Desheng came back to his senses, he smiled mechanically and nodded.

"Thank you." The girl showed a generous smile, sat down beside him, opened the book and handouts, Liu Desheng peeked at her notebook, and saw the three words "Yang Jinhui" written in Juanxiu's small block letters on the cover.

The girl named Yang Jinhui didn't notice Liu Desheng's small movements, but looked at the lessons that had already been taught.

Liu Desheng was about to strike up a conversation with Yang Jinhui, but saw the main professor Peng Qinghe (British) walk in. He had no choice but to put away his thoughts about playing with the beautiful woman and focus on today's class.

The topic of Professor Peng Qinghe's lecture today is "The Historical Reasons Why China's Science and Technology Lag Behind the West."

"We review the development of science and technology in various periods of ancient China, compare the development speed of science and technology in the period of 'domination of the world' and the period of 'confrontation of multiple regimes', and discuss the reasons why ancient Chinese science and technology developed slowly in some periods, so that it lagged behind the West in some periods, and the final conclusion is: Qin Shi Huang unified China, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty 'deposed a hundred schools, 'Confucianism' and the imperial examination system that emerged during the Sui and Tang dynasties were three major blows to the development of science and technology in China. ”

"For geographical reasons, a unified China eliminates competition between countries, and thus a strong stimulus to the development of science and technology such as the preservation of national survival; The centralization of power in the state of 'domination of the whole world' led to the 'deposition of the hundred schools of thought and the exclusive respect for Confucianism', a policy that inhibited people's exploration of science and technology other than Confucianism, imprisoned academic thought, and restricted the development of industry and commerce; In the era when Confucianism became the orthodox ideology, the imperial examination system attracted the research interest of the social intelligentsia to the study of Confucian classics, language and writing, and other fields. Since then, ancient Chinese science and technology have lacked the stimulus of competition between countries, and the lack of investment in the development of science and technology by the intellectual class of society, which has made China's science and technology develop slowly for a long time, so that it lags behind the West in the future. ”

"Why did China's science and technology lag far behind the West later? Scholars from various countries have put forward many useful insights, such as the characteristics of Chinese characters, the state's monopoly on large-scale economic organization and development, the defects of China's academic tradition and scientific method, and the hindrance of science and technology by the feudal system. Ancient China's science and technology had a glorious period of development and occupied a leading position in the world for a long period of time. However, at the end of the Ming Dynasty, Western science and technology gradually surpassed China's. The reason for China's slow development of science and technology lies in the premature establishment of a centralized[***] domination in a geographically closed region. ”

"The first peak of China's scientific and technological development, and also the most brilliant peak of ancient China's scientific and technological development, occurred in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. During this period, the Bronze Age rapidly transitioned to the Iron Age, with the emergence of pig iron smelting and softening technology, heat treatment technology, and block iron-making carburizing steel technology, which paved the way for the development of iron smelting in later generations; In terms of agricultural production, the 'well field system' has been abolished, forming a tradition of intensive cultivation in Chinese agriculture that has lasted for thousands of years; the construction of large-scale water conservancy projects represented by Dujiangyan and Zhengguoqu shows the level of engineering design and construction technology of the ancient Chinese; Days have begun to be quantified; In the field of mathematics, the main content of the "Nine Chapters of Arithmetic" has been completed, and the advanced decimal system and calculation system have been continuously improved, laying the foundation of the computational mathematics system in later generations. The Yellow Emperor's Neijing initially established the theoretical system of traditional Chinese medicine; The Art of War remains one of the best reference books for military strategists and entrepreneurs. The doctrines of the Hundred Schools of Thought established the foundation of Chinese philosophy, and the academic controversy of the Hundred Schools of Thought brought about a splendid Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States culture. ”

"After Qin Shi Huang unified China, he established the first centralized state in Chinese history, ending an era in which a hundred flowers bloomed and a hundred schools of thought contended, and the development of China's science and technology gradually slowed down. The science and technology of the Qin and Han dynasties summarized, perfected, and developed the theories formed during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and applied the technologies formed at that time to a larger scale. For example, in agriculture, many agricultural works appeared, and the rotation system, intensive cultivation and general crop cultivation principles and technical measures were established during the Warring States period; In terms of medicine, the "Shennong's Materia Medica", which was completed during this period, summarized the knowledge of medicine since the Warring States period and the Qin and Han dynasties, and laid the foundation for materia medica in later generations. Great progress has been made in the field of heaven, the calendar has the main content of the current calendar, and astronomical instruments, celestial records and cosmic theories have formed their own traditions. The emergence of mathematical monographs represented by "Nine Chapters of Arithmetic" marks the formation of a unique mathematical system with arithmetic as a calculation tool. In terms of technology, papermaking was invented in this era; The production of tools and weapons entered the iron, the scale of production was greatly expanded, and the technology of frying steel, 100 steel, and cast iron decarburization appeared in the production process (this technology was invented 1800 years earlier than the Europeans). However, in terms of the speed of scientific development, the Qin and Han dynasties were far inferior to the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. ”

"The second peak of China's scientific and technological development occurred during the Three Kingdoms, the Two Jin Dynasties, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties. At that time, many regimes in Chinese mainland were divided, but science and technology made great progress on the basis of the Qin and Han dynasties, and a group of scientists emerged. For example, the content of "Qi Min Yaoshu" includes agricultural industry, animal husbandry, and veterinary medicine, and is a famous work of Chinese agriculture; A series of new discoveries have been made in the sky, such as precession, atmospheric extinction, uneven apparent motion of the sun and five stars, and the accuracy of astronomical constants has also been greatly improved. Excellence in the field of mathematics. Liu Hui's 'circumcision' applied the concept of limit, and Zu Chongzhi found pi accurate to seven digits, leading the world for more than 1,000 years. In addition, the calculation of the volume of the sphere, the problem of solving cubic equations, and the problem of primary congruence were far ahead of the world at that time. In terms of medicine, a large number of medical monographs appeared during this period, which enriched the traditional medical system in the aspects of pulse science, acupuncture, materia medica, drug processing technology and prescription medicine. In terms of technology, porcelain-making technology tends to be mature. There has been a new breakthrough in steel technology, and the emergence of steel filling method, blast technology, and heat treatment technology has also been greatly improved. There are also many new achievements in mechanical engineering. Invented the keel waterwheel, the guide car, the wooden ox, the flowing horse and the textile dumper. The shipbuilding industry has developed enormously, and large ships can carry 3,000 people. Weapons and military technology developed enormously, and various chariots, hard bows, and repeaters appeared. The construction industry also flourished due to the prevalence of religion. The tremendous progress of science and technology during this period made China's science and technology far ahead of the world. ”

"Based on the first two peaks of science and technology, China in the Sui and Tang dynasties was famous for its reputation as the prosperous Tang Dynasty, and its scientific and technological level was ahead of other countries in the world, but the development speed of science and technology was significantly slower than that of the Three Kingdoms, the Two Jin Dynasties and the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The development of science and technology in the Tang Dynasty was mainly characterized by the education and popularization of science, the finalization and popularization of technology, and some scientific and technological inventions, such as engraving printing and gunpowder. In science, agricultural works with professional surnames appeared, mathematics education was included in the teaching of the Guozijian, and medical education was established by the Taiyi Medical Administration, which promoted the popularization of science. At the same time, the scale of production in metallurgy, textile, machinery manufacturing, construction and other industries has expanded, and technology has been improved accordingly. ”

"During the Song, Liao, Jin and Yuan dynasties, there was a third ** in the development of science and technology in China. During this period, the existing science and technology have been further developed, scientific and technological talents have been produced in large numbers, scientific and technological achievements have been emerging, and the invention of movable type printing has affected the world's civilization and progress. The gunpowder discovered in the alchemy of the Tang Dynasty was used in the military during this period, and rockets, artillery, explosives packets and tubular firearms appeared. In particular, tubular firearms are a major breakthrough in the history of weapon development and the foundation of modern guns. During this period, the compass was used for navigation; The shipbuilding industry was at its peak, and ocean-going giant sea ships and various transport ships and warships appeared. In the Song-Jin War and the Song-Yuan War, thousands or even tens of thousands of warships were dispatched. In agriculture, the development of agricultural tools has been the first, a more comprehensive monograph on agricultural tools has appeared, and brilliant achievements have been made in the field of mathematics, which far exceed those of Europe in the same period. Among them, the numerical solution of higher order equations is more than 800 years earlier than that of the West, the solution of multivariate higher order equations and the solution of a congruence formula are more than 500 years earlier, and the general formula of equal difference series is completely consistent with Newton's formula after 400 years. In the celestial realm, large-scale stellar observations were organized during this period, measuring more than 1,000 previously unnamed stars, increasing the number of recorded stars to 2,500 (the number of stars observed in Western Europe before the Renaissance was 1,022). Astronomical instrumentation has also undergone significant developments. Pharmacy has also entered a new stage of all-round development, with varying degrees of development in the theory of medical education, diagnosis and treatment of various clinical departments, as well as materia medica and prescription. In addition, there are eight famous kilns in the ceramic industry; The metallurgical industry can produce gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and their alloys; Construction and bridge technology has been summarized and developed to form bridge construction**; Textile tools appeared with water-powered spinning wheels; The achievements of textile technology are the weaving method and jacquard process of fabrics such as leno brocade. The development of science and technology in the Song and Yuan dynasties wrote a glorious chapter in the history of science and technology in ancient China. ”

"By the Ming Dynasty, science and technology had entered a stage of obvious slow development. In the basic sciences, mathematics and heaven are almost at a standstill, but agronomy and medicine continue to develop. The achievements of agronomy are manifested in the proliferation of agricultural works, and the large number of agricultural books with local surnames. The 'one-year-old harvest' and the introduction of new crops were the main achievements of agricultural technology during this period. Medicine has made progress in infectious diseases, surgery, and materia medica, with the establishment of the theory of warm disease, the invention of the human pox inoculation method, the emergence of the "Compendium of Materia Medica" and the summary of surgery "Surgical Orthodoxy". The voyages of the Ming Dynasty were a great success. In terms of technology, metallurgical technology continued to develop, the invention of coke made the quality and output of metallurgical production improved, and the method of frying and filling steel was improved. The construction industry has achieved brilliant results, with the emergence of such large-scale complexes as the Forbidden City and the huge Great Wall. However, compared with previous periods, the development of science in the Ming Dynasty was significantly slower, while Europe at this time made great progress in science and technology after the Renaissance and surpassed China in a very short period of time. ”

"In the Qing Dynasty, the introduction of a large number of Western science and technology and the war of aggression against China by Western countries made the development of Chinese science and technology deviate from the traditional track and merge into the process of scientific development in the world."

"Although China's scientific and technological level has improved from generation to generation, the improvement of scientific and technological level is in a ladder shape, and the speed of scientific and technological development is sometimes fast and sometimes slow. The period of rapid development of China's science and technology occurred in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan Dynasties and the present. Compared with the achievements of ancient Chinese science and technology in the three peak areas, the period with the fastest development speed and the most brilliant achievements should be the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The science and technology developed during this period laid the foundation for ancient Chinese science and technology; The philosophical views formed during this period ruled China for thousands of years. ”

(To be continued)